Careers in Genetics:
A short guide for students and counsellors

Prepared for The Genetics society of Canada by
Michael Bentley1, Alessandra Duncan2, and David Nash3
1. Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada. T2N 1N4
2. Departments of Pathology, Paediatrics, and Biology, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. K7L 3N6
3. Department of Genetics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. T6G 2E9

The discoveries of genetics are scientifically profound and sometimes difficult to grasp; but they refer to the nature of life and to the essence of being human, and so evoke wonder and curiosity, hope and trepidation. Many of the most important developments in genetics occurred in the modern era of mass-communication, so the public has been and continues to be continuously and accurately informed about new developments. It is not surprising, then, that the science of Genetics has caught public consciousness in a way that some older, but important areas of science never did. Nor is it surprising that 'Geneticist' is beginning to appear on the schedule of high school 'Careers Days'.
With this in mind, the Genetics Society of Canada offers the following brief guide to the science of genetics and its applications, and to the career and training opportunities that are available for the potential geneticist.

WHAT IS GENETICS?
Self-reproduction is a fundamental capacity, perhaps the most important one, of living organisms. Genetics examines the mechanism of biological inheritance, the means by which the characteristics of a parent organism are passed on. The central discovery of genetics is that one mechanism of biological inheritance is universal.
The characteristics of an organism are not passed on in the form in which they appear in the individual. Rather, they are passed on as instructions, known as genes; each cell contains a set of these instructions. As well, each cell has the capability to translate the instructions into the physical and physiological organization that they represent. We know that genetic instructions are to be found in the arrangement of atoms in the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules in a cell. We are learning with increasing sophistication how this genetic information exerts its all-pervading influence.
Because the mechanism of inheritance is so important, the scope of genetics is extraordinarily broad. No science stands alone, and many disciplines have contributed to our understanding of inheritance, prominent among them biochemistry, chemistry, embryology, microbiology, physics and physiology. As well, genetics owes a great debt to the more traditional biological disciplines, botany and zoology. Genetics covers not only the sub-cellular details of the hereditary processes, but also how they interact to generate the whole organism. It examines the origins of inherited variation, its transmission, and its biological significance. Inherited variation is the basis of evolution and has also been used as a tool to learn about inheritance.
Practical applications of genetics are numerous. Plant and animal breeding, medical and forensic diagnostics, pharmaceutical production, reproductive counselling, etc., depend on our knowledge of genetics. Application of the molecular genetics of the 1980's will fuel growth of a major economic sector --'Biotechnology' -- through the 1990's and into the twenty-first century.

A BRIEF HISTORY OF GENETICS
The science of genetics started in the middle of the 19th century when Gregor Mendel studied inheritance of varietal differences in the garden pea. By crossing distinctly different varieties, he discovered rules of inheritance that, in one form or another, hold for all organisms. He correctly interpreted these rules as meaning that the hereditary factors are separate from the characteristics that they control; in other words, he discovered what we now call genes. Mendel's findings were ignored by scientists until the beginning of this century. Rediscovery of his work, and discovery of similar results in other organisms, started a torrent of scientific research that continues to this day.
Perhaps the best way to gauge the significance of the discoveries that arose from Mendel's work is to list the Nobel Prizes awarded for the study of heredity:
1933 T.H.Morgan Discoveries on the hereditary function of the chromosomes
1946 H.J.Muller The hereditary effects of X-rays on genes
1954 L.C.Pauling The study of forces holding together proteins and other molecules
1957 A Todd Research with chemical compounds that are factors in heredity
1958 F.Sanger Determining the molecular structure of insulin
1958 J.Lederberg Work with genetic mechanisms
G.W.Beadle and Discovering how genes transmit hereditary
E.L.Tatum   characteristics
1959 S.Ochoa and Discoveries related to compounds within
A.Kornberg   chromosomes, which play a vital role in heredity
1962 M.F.Perutz and Mapping protein molecules with X-rays
J.C.Kendrew
1962 J.D.Watson, Determining the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid
M.H.Wilkins and
F.H.C.Crick
1965 F.Jacob,
A.Lwoff Study of regulatory activities in body cells
and J.Monod
1968 R.W.Holley, Studies of the genetic code
H.G.Khorana and
M.W.Nirenberg
1969 M.Delbruck, Study of the mechanism of virus infection in
A.D.Hershey and   living cells
S.E.Luria
1975 D.Baltimore, Work on the interaction between tumor viruses and
H.M. Temin and the genetic material of the cell
R. Dulbecco  
1978 D.Nathans, Discovery of restriction enzymes and their
H.Smith and   application to problems of molecular genetics
W.Arber
1980 P.Berg,
W.Gilbert Developing methods to map structure and function
and F.Sanger   of DNA, the substance that controls the activity of the cell
1983 B.McClintock Discovery of mobile genes in the chromosomes of a plant
1986 R.Levi-Montalcini Contributions to understanding of substances that
and S.Cohen   influence cell growth
1987 S.Tonegawa Discovery of how the body can suddenly marshal its immunological defenses against millions of different disease agents

The understanding of DNA function is, perhaps, as profound an insight as is possible in biology. It opens the door to a complete understanding of living systems, for within the DNA is written most, if not all, of the information needed to construct a functioning organism. Because we ourselves are a life-form, this understanding has deep significance not only for science, but for all realms of human intellectual endeavor. To study genetics now is to place oneself at a junction between science and society; genetics will affect not only our life-style, our industry and our well-being, but also our collective self-image, for centuries to come, maybe for as long as civilization persists.

WHAT DO GENETICISTS DO?
Genetics is often divided into several branches; Geneticists employ a wide variety of different techniques, depending on the area that they study. The following brief list describes some important branches and the principle techniques employed in each.
Molecular Genetics - This area involves investigation of the molecular basis of gene transmission, mutation, and activity. The discipline employs the techniques of high resolution genetic analysis in conjunction with analytical methods of biochemistry. Techniques of molecular genetics have found their way into investigations throughout biology.
Developmental Genetics - This discipline applies the methods of molecular genetics, as well as those more commonly used to study development, such as experimental microsurgery and microscopy, to probe one of the most fascinating of all questions: How does the complex adult arise from a single fertilized egg cell?
Cytogenetics - Cytogenetics is the discipline which seeks to describe and explain the structure and behavior of chromosomes. In the days before DNA was known to be the genetic material, the emphasis was on the morphology and movement of chromosomes. Nowadays, the emphasis is on chemical organization, molecular function, and the cause of abnormalities within these very complex organelles.
Population Genetics - This area is concerned with the dynamics of inheritance within whole populations of organisms. It seeks to explain the origin and nature of natural variation, the relationship of such variants to their environment, and ultimately, the process of evolution. The activities of population geneticists range from field biology through intensive laboratory investigation, to mathematical model-building and computer simulation. Population genetics has recently become very important in mapping genes using new techniques.
Applied Genetics - "Applied" genetics is sometimes taken to mean the use of genetic knowledge for agricultural and industrial purposes, particularly for the improvement of domesticated species. In a broader sense, the applications of genetics include major areas in medical practice. It is widely forecast that there will be a steady increase in the practical applications of genetics, and particularly molecular genetics, in the near future.
Human Genetics - The study of how genes are inherited in humans and how their function and disfunction can affect our wellbeing.

GENETICS IN EVERYDAY LIFE
Without analytical understanding, humans have, since the beginning of the domestication of plants and animals, exploited the existence of inherited variation. Almost unconsciously, we have taken the highest-yielding or the best-tasting plant or the most docile or the hardiest animal as parents for our domesticated stock. The result is often domesticated varieties exquisitely adapted to particular human needs or fancies. Charles Darwin, in his great work, On the Origin of Species, started his exposition of how 'natural selection' produces varied living forms, by pointing out how humans have performed the self-same role during domestication.
As knowledge of genetics developed, it has been consciously applied to the same end. Applications in agriculture and medicine have been commonplace for decades. Nowadays, newer technologies promise astonishing advances in both those areas, as well as many others where the previous impact of genetics was small.

CAREERS IN GENETICS
Genetics is a field which impinges on many aspects of everyday life. Consequently, individuals who have a knowledge of genetics and who are interested in using that knowledge in their work will find a broad spectrum of occupations in which they can do so (Table 1).
Technical or assistants' jobs are available, for example in, laboratories of universities and research institutions, agriculture, animal breeding, brewing, pharmaceuticals, hospital diagnostic laboratories, etc. Technical positions of this type do not generally carry a large amount of autonomy but can be very rewarding and reasonably lucrative occupations. Many people who hold these positions have either some kind of a technical diploma or a B.Sc. in Genetics or a related area such as Biology, Biological Sciences, Biochemistry, Microbiology, Molecular Biology, Botany, Zoology, etc.
For teaching at the high school level, a B.Sc. in Genetics with a strong emphasis on cell biology, biochemistry, and chemistry, followed by an education diploma, provide excellent training for the teaching of modern biology.
For college or university teaching, it is generally necessary to obtain a postgraduate degree. In Universities, Professors are normally expected to undertake both teaching and research.
Generally, those individuals who aspire to greater autonomy will need to go further in their training and obtain a postgraduate university degree such as an M.Sc., a Ph.D., or an M.D., as well as gain postdoctoral experience. With increased specialization and more advanced qualifications will come increased responsibilities and somewhat decreased flexibility. Again, the areas in which more highly trained and specialized geneticists are able to work are very diverse.

GENETICS TRAINING
A geneticist requires university science training, so the student should follow an academic high school program permitting entry to a faculty of science and observing such requirements as would be needed for an appropriate subject area. This route would normally also position a student appropriately for application to a medical school, which is a prerequisite for physicians specialized in medical genetics. Where options are available, it is recommended that students contemplating a career in genetics include biology, chemistry, english, mathematics and physics among the subjects studied in the final year at high school.
Once high school has been successfully completed, the potential geneticist must obtain further training. The following definitions and Table 1 should help access what is the best course for each particular individual.
College Certificate or Diploma: Document which certifies that the student has received specialized training in a technical college. Typically, training of this variety takes one to two years. Individuals taking such a course of study might get, for example, a Registered Technologist Certificate (specialization is possible if one wants to work in a hospital cytogenetics laboratory) or an Animal Care Technology Diploma. Such degrees allow one to work in hospital diagnostic labs, animal breeding facilities, university or industry research or teaching labs, etc. Such degrees are fairly restrictive in opportunities to rise in the system and the potential jobs leave little room for creativity and initiative.
Undergraduate University Degree (B.A. or B.Sc.): University degree obtained after 3 to 4 years of university education. Typically, students interested in genetics would do an undergraduate program in any of the following disciplines: genetics (offered only in a few places as a speciality in its own right), life sciences, biology, biological sciences, biochemistry, microbiology, zoology, botany, etc. A 4-year degree is generally required with some research experience (honours project and/or summer studentship) and desirable if one wishes to go into work as a research technician or get into a postgraduate program. For admission into a postgraduate program a GPA of 3.0 on a 4.0 scale is the minimum required and may not alone guarantee admission to the most desirable programs.
University Postgraduate Degrees: M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees specializing in genetics can be obtained at most universities although rarely will the degree be specifically in genetics. When undertaking such a degree careful thought should be given to the academic milieu, the type of research being done in the supervisor's laboratory, the supervisor him/herself, and the associated department. Generally, individuals who wish to do independent research will obtain both an M.Sc. and a Ph.D., although some Universities now offer the opportunity to bypass the M.Sc. Obtaining an M.Sc. is generally not sufficient to do independent research, although there may exist a few jobs where this is not the case. There is one definite exception in this regard: Genetic counsellors generally obtain an M.Sc. or a Ph.D. in Genetic Counselling or enter the field from other routes (e.g. nursing, clinical psychology, research, etc.).
Postdoctoral Experience: Once one has completed a Ph.D., additional research experience should be obtained. For those intending to do research this experience is best obtained in a laboratory that is conducting "state of the art" research in one's chosen field. For those intending to do service (i.e. direct hospital laboratories), this experience may be obtained by obtaining fellowships in the desired area.
Medical Genetics: In order to become a specialist in diagnosing medical conditions which have a genetic etiology, one should obtain a medical degree (M.D.) followed by speciality training in medical genetics. This program has only recently been approved by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons (1989). There are at present no accredited training institutions although this situation will soon change.

Table 1. Examples of careers in genetics and training routes.

		Degrees and Training
		College		University
career		certificate/diploma		B.Sc./B.A.	M.D.	M.Sc.	Ph.D.	P.D.F.
Research lab tech		X		X		X
Hospital lab tech		X		(X)
Animal or Plant breeding		X		(X)
Research Scientist				X	(X)	(X)	X	X
University Professor				X	(X)	(X)	X	X
Medical Geneticist				(X)	X	(X)	(X)	X*
Cytogenetics or DNA diagnostic lab director				X	(X)	(X)	X	X
Genetic Counsellor				X**		X

* Indicates residency training in this area.

* Indicates a Nursing degree is also possible here.

( ) Parentheses indicate optional degrees.

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION:

The following organizations may be able to provide information or updates on the matters described above:

The Genetics Society of Canada The Genetics Society of America
151 Slater St., Suite 907 AND/OR
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1P 5H4 The American Society of Human Genetics
9650 Rockville Pike
Bethesda, Maryland 20814 USA

Academic calendars (catalogues of course offerings) are available by writing to the registrars of the institutions that most interest you. Appropriate addresses can be found in publications available at most public libraries.


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