Islamic Theology: Kalam

Kalam:

Interest in Theology Arose from Several Motives

Influence of Greek Philosophy

Rediscovery and translation of Greek philosophical and scientific literature

Political Questions

Questions raised by the moral imperfections of their religious leaders, espcially the Umayyad Caliphs.

Such as:

• Should believers protest or accept God's will?

  "Qadarite" movement encouraged active opposition to the Umayyad regime because of their belief in human free will and accountability before God.

  Defenders of the Caliphate took a determininistic position, that people should accept their leaders as "God's will."

• Should a distinction be made between grave ("mortal") sins and minor transgressions?

• Is the leader's faith more important than his "works"?

  "Kharijites" opposed the Umayyads because they believed even slight sins are unacceptable.

  Defenders of the Caliphate argued that a distinction should be made between major sins (like blasphemy and "shirk") and minor ones, which do not disqualify the leader.

Ambiguities in the Qur'an

Such as:
• It teaches both the futility of human actions in the face of the divine will, and that everyone will be judged for their deeds.
• It speaks of a God who is completely spiritual, and yet uses physical and human-like imagery in describing him.

Apologetics

The need to argue the superiority of Islam before people with other beliefs.

Rise and Fall of the "Mu'tazila"

Term means "withdrawers"
because they "withdrew" to an intermediate position on the evaluation of grave and lesser sin.

Known as "the People of Justice and Unity"

• "Justice"
  Human actions are not predetermined by God. Otherwise it would be unjust for God to reward or punish people.
• "Unity"
  Because they rejected the attribution of all physical and human qualities to God.
  God is not only unique, but he has no multiplicity within him.

  All anthropomorphic expressions in the Qur'an must be interpreted as metaphors and images, and must not be understood literally.

  Opposed the popular view that the Qur'an was eternal and uncreated. This belief would compromise the uniqueness of God.

Ashari's Moderate Rationalism

• God does possess the attributes mentioned in the Qur'an, but in a mode completely different from what we can understand.
• The Qur'an is eternal in a way different from God's eternity.

• Though all actions are determined by God, humans can "acquire" responsibility for them through their actions.

Theology and Philosophy

Several Islamic philosophers developed complete rational systems, based largely on the teachings of Aristotle.

The most important Muslim philsophers were:

• Ibn-Sina ("Avicenna")
• Al-Farabi
• Ibn-Rushd ("Averroes")

Al-Ghazali presented a logical argument against the excessive reliance on rationalism.

He encouraged mysticism and spiritual submission to God.