Women in Judaism

Methodological Issues:

• The legal character of Judaism: Issue cannot be dealt with separately from the fundamental question of the authority of religious law.

• Rabbinic sources rarely justify their rules on philosophical, moral or ideological grounds. Laws are open to many interpretations, but are difficult to change.

• Much of Jewish law originated as individual or majority opinions or different authorities: it does not constitute a consistent system.

• "Status"--a problematic term. It is the totality of many individual, non-systematic regulations and traditions.

• Does religion create a situation, or does it just regulate it?

• Can there be separation of gender roles without discrimination?

Historical perspectives--

• Contemporary situation is materially different from earlier times: e.g., possibility (physical, at least) of birth control, bottle-feeding, change to non-physical forms of employment, etc.
  Until recently, the traditional family (father working outside the home, mother as home-maker) was not a matter of choice, but of biological and economic necessity.

  Importance of distinguishing between culturally contingent features and "eternal" religious positions.

  Social changes which involve religious and moral positions: e.g., Nature of the family, legitimacy of birth control, etc.

  Modern Judaism tends to confine the focus of religious life to specifically

  religious institutions, especially the synagogue; whereas traditional Judaism attached equal religious value to all aspects of life, especially the home.

  Contemporary culture regards public activity as more important than domestic life.

Major issues of controversy:

• Exclusion from Torah study

• Liturgy and rituals:
  • "Blessed is God...who has not made me a woman."

    [Variants: Who has created me in his image. Who has created me according to his will. Who has not made me a man.]

    Responses:
    Reform: Drop

    Conservative: Adopt alternative version.

    Orthodox: Retain (and interpret).

    Gender-specific language. [Limitations of Hebrew]

    Exclusion from time-bound rituals

    Distinctly female rituals [candle-lighting, niddah, etc.]

    Celebrations of birth and coming-of-age (cf. circumcision and bar-mitzvah for males)

• Synagogue:
  • Separate vs. family seating.

  • Counting in minyan (quorum of ten).

  • Public reading of Torah

  • Ability to lead communal prayers
    [Follows from the fact that women are not obligated in time-bound rituals].

    Ordination as Rabbis

• Civil and Family law:

  • Marriage: Acquisition by husband?

  • Divorce: Must be initiated by husband

  • Levirate marriage

  • Agunah

  • Disqualification from being witnesses or judges

  • Inheritance and alimony

  • Polygyny and monogamy

  • Rape

• Sexuality and modesty:

  • Niddah--Menstrual prohibitions

  • Procreation as a man's obligation

  • Birth control and abortion

  • Sexual distraction: Limitations on public appearances; dress and head-covering, singing, etc.

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